Giáo trình Toeic grammar

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1. Adjectives and adverbs Tip Check that the adjective is placed before the noun Remember that adjectives are always singular Tip Check that the adverb is often placed : − before or after a verb − before an adjective − before another adverb Remember that most adverbs are formed as follows: adjective + ly slow slow ly final fina lly Adjectives or Adjectives only adverbs costly, friendly, likely, lively Both adjectives and adverbs daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, early, quarterly, hourly, nightly, fast, straight, well Adjectives Adverbs • free (without payment) You can come in free. free • freely (without limit) He could speak freely about it. • hard He works hard. hard • hardly (= almost not) He hardly knows her. • high Planes fly high. high • highly (=very much) a highly paid job • late He left work late. late • lately (=recently) What have you been doing lately? • prettily She danced prettily. pretty • pretty (= rather) Temperatures are pretty high. • wide Open the door wide. wide • widely (in many different places) He has traveled widely. Verbs + The following (state) verbs can only be followed by adjectives not adverbs: adjective be, seem, become, appear, prove, look, sound, taste, feel, smell (verbs of senses) It sounds good to me. Chances of survival seem hopeless. Note : The adjectives alike , alive , alone , afraid , asleep can only appear after the above verbs and never directly in front of the nouns they describe. Ads all look alike. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 11
2. Adjectives and adverbs, Suite Adjectives: -ed Be careful when using the following adjectives: or -ing A story can be You can feel interesting interested amusing amused annoying annoyed boring bored confusing confused disappointing disappointed exciting excited tiring tired Hyphenated When expressions of measurement , amount and quantity are used as adjectives hyphenated adjectives , they are: − singular − formed as follows: article + cardinal number - singular noun + noun Example : • It is a three-hour drive to Chicago. • He had no change for a fifty-dollar bill. • They will invest in a new ten-ton truck. Such/so Such is used before nouns , with or without adjectives, to emphasize. It may not be such a bad idea. So is used before adjectives , without nouns, to emphasize. It’s no longer so economical to live in the country. Expressions with such and so can be followed by that-clauses ; then they express cause and result . His business became so successful (that) he moved to larger headquarters. Enough Enough is used as follows: enough + noun adjective/ adverb + enough and is followed by the infinitive Example : • Did you have enough time to finish the report? • He wasn't experienced enough for the job. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 12
3. Adjectives and adverbs, Suite Tip If you have “than”, you need to find the comparative! Comparative The comparative is used to compare two things and it is followed by than . and superlative The conference was more interesting than people thought. Costs have risen faster than incomes. The superlative is used to compare more than two things and is used with the definite article the . You should choose the most appropriate solution that is offered. You are among the earliest to discover the new fares. Comparative and superlative adjectives are formed as follows : Adjective Comparative Superlative one-syllable -er -est hard hard er hard est two-syllable ending in -y -er -est early earl ier earl iest other two-syllable and long more most tiring more tiring most tiring intelligent more intelligent most intelligent some two-syllable more or -er most or -est quiet more quiet quietest clever cleverer most clever simple simpler most simple Irregular Some adjectives have irregular comparatives and superlatives as shown in comparatives/ the following table : superlatives Adjective Comparative Superlative good better best bad worse worst far further/farther furthest/farthest little less least much more most Example : • The situation should get better soon. • How much further is it? • The new model uses less gas. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 13
4. Adjectives and adverbs, Suite A lot, much Before the comparatives of adjectives you can use : with much, a lot, a little, a bit, far, any, no, rather, slightly, significantly comparatives If we leave any later than 5.00 we'll get caught in rush hour. As as We use as as to say that people or things are equal in some way. Copies are almost as expensive as originals. Note: • as much as , as many as I didn't get as much money as I had hoped. • twice/ three times as as A US worker is 10 times as expensive as a worker in Mexico. • the same as The look is the same as it would have been back in the 60s. Double We can use double comparatives comparatives • er and er : Our nation gets fatter and fatter every year. • more and more + adjective : The problem gets more and more difficult to solve the further you go. to say that something is increasing all the time. The the We can use comparatives with the definite article the The more you say, the worse the situation will be. The more, the merrier. to say that two changes happen together . One, some, One , some , another , other can be adjectives and pronouns and are used as another, other follows: Adjective Pronoun one one another + singular noun another the other the other some other + plural noun (the) others the other • Have you met Frank’s associates? I've met one. I didn't know he had another (associate). He has three others (three other associates). • It is essential to complete this form before filling out the other (form). Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 14
5. Adjectives and adverbs, Suite Adjectives + Some prepositions combine with adjectives : preposition Adjective Preposition amazed, surprised good, excellent at bad, terrible delighted, (dis)pleased, (dis)satisfied, disappointed bored, fed up with crowded keen, short on known, famous for responsible interested in equal, similar superior, inferior to committed, dedicated married, engaged, related used, accustomed kind, nice, (im)polite, generous, good to sb rude, mean of sb to do sth different from (GB)/than (US) excited about worried, upset sorry about sth angry, furious with sb for doing annoyed sth jealous, envious, suspicious aware, conscious afraid, frightened, scared, terrified fond full of capable, incapable proud, ashamed tired typical short The + The is used with adjectives to represent a class of persons; the meaning is adjectives plural. Example : • The French eat frog legs. • The young are worried about the future. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 15
6. Adjectives and adverbs, Suite Tip Check that the adverb does not separate the verb and its object. He speaks English fluently. Adverbs in Adverbs that go in mid-position express: mid-position • frequency : never, rarely, always • certainty : probably, certainly, obviously • degree : nearly, almost, quite The word order for adverbs in mid-position is as follows : Tense Subject Auxiliary Adverb Verb Complement verb To be in simple tenses I am usually right Perfect tenses He has already seen this film Modal auxiliary verbs We can sometimes play tennis Simple tenses She hardly cooks dinner Passive with He has never been for his novels 2 auxiliary verbs remembered Only / even Only and even go just before the words they emphasize. It will only take (only) five minutes. They have even forgotten (even) his name. Sometimes / Sometimes : sometime • means occasionally • answers the question How often? Law may be sometimes hard for the individual. Sometime • means at one moment in the future • answers the question When? Let's have dinner together sometime. 15/09/2006 v 1.00 16
7. Verbs and tenses Tip Always make sure that : • there is a verb in the sentence • that this verb is conjugated. Auxiliary verbs Auxiliary verbs are used: • to make different tenses − be + -ing : continuous tenses He is working. − be + -ed (past participle) : passive He was contacted. − have + -ed (past participle) : perfect tenses We have phoned them. − do (questions and negatives in simple tenses) He didn’t say anything. • to express meanings such as possibility, advisability, and necessity ( modal auxiliary verbs ) can, could will, would shall, should + verb (base form) They will come. may, might must, ought to English tenses There are 12 tenses in English. Simple tenses Continuous tenses Simple present I listen Present continuous I am listening I don’t listen You aren’t listening Does he listen? Is she listening? Simple past I listened Past continuous I was listening (preterite) She didn’t listen She wasn’t listening Did they listen? Were that listening? Simple future I will listen Future continuous I will be listening They won’t listen Will you listen? Perfect tenses Perfect continuous tenses Present perfect I have listened Present perfect continuous I have been listening He hasn’t listened Have you listened? Past perfect I had listened Past perfect continuous I had been listening Future perfect I will have listened Future perfect continuous I will have been listening Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 17
8. Verbs and tenses , Suite State and Action verbs can be continuous . State verbs cannot usually be action verbs continuous : believe, belong, consist of, depend on, deserve, exist, know, like, mean, own, need, prefer, remember, seem, understand, want But some of them can be used either for a state or for an action: State verbs (simple tenses) Action verbs (simple or continuous) I think he'll come (believe) I'm thinking about it (ponder, consider) I have a dog (own) I'm having a hot dog. I see what you mean (understand) I'm seeing the doctor (meet) You look nice I'm looking at a picture Time markers The following time markers very often imply the use of: referring to the present Present simple Present continuous • always, usually, often, sometimes, • still, currently, right now, at the hardly ever, rarely, never moment, presently • every day/week • today, this morning • once/twice a week to express an action at or around the • on Sundays time of speaking to express habitual actions Prices are currently hovering around They make reservations only on $400. Mondays. • tomorrow, tonight, in two days to express the immediate future He is leaving tomorrow for Texas. Time markers The following time markers very often imply the use of: referring to the past Present perfect Past • ever, never, yet, already, before, • a date almost, nearly, just • yesterday (morning ), last meaning at any time up to now, by night/weekend , at that time, now once, at one time, formerly, • so far, recently, lately, all my previously, in those days, then, life referring to a period up to after, before now • for • since + a point in time used to say how long something (It is when the action started) lasted • How long? , for + a period of time • duration + ago up to now The manager called before the How long have you been a teacher? meeting. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 18
9. Verbs and tenses, Suite Sequence of Note: tenses Main clause Since-clause Present perfect tense Past tense Since Ms Sutton was hired, competition among employees has increased. Verbs often Some verbs are often confused : confused Infinitive Past tense Past participle beat beat beaten bite bit bitten feel felt felt fall fell fallen fill filled filled file filed filed lay laid laid lie lay lain lie lied lied raise raised raised rise rose risen strike struck struck stroke stroked stroked English ≠≠≠ Some verbs are regular in one language and irregular in the other : American Infinitive English American burn, dream, lean, learn, burn t – burn t, dream t – regular smell, spell, spill, spoil dream t, lean t – lean t wake woke - woken regular / irregular fit regular fit - fit quit regular quit - quit wet regular wet – wet prove regular proved - proven dive regular dove - dived get got - got got – gotten Tip When the verb is in the past, check whether it is the right form of the past (regular or irregular). When the verb is in a perfect tense, check whether it is the right form of the past participle (regular or irregular). Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 19
10. Verbs and tenses, Suite Irregular verbs Infinitive Past tense Past participle ar ise /ai/ ar ose ar isen /i/ ride /ai/ rode ridd en /i/ rise /ai/ rose risen /i/ dr ive /ai/ dr ove dr iven /i/ wr ite /ai/ wr ote wr itt en /i/ take took taken mist ake mist ook mist aken undert ake undert ook undert aken sh ake sh ook sh aken bear /e/ bore borne /b orn sw ear /e/ sw ore sw orn tear /e/ tore torn wear /e/ wore worn become bec ame become come came come run ran run beg in beg an beg un dr ink dr ank dr unk ring rang rung sing sang sung sink sank sunk spr ing spr ang/sprung spr ung sw im sw am sw um ben d ben t ben t len d len t len t sen d sen t sen t spen d spen t spen t smel l smel t smel t buil d buil t buil t los e los t los t bet bet bet bid bid bid burst burst burst cast cast cast cost cost cost cut cut cut hit hit hit hurt hurt hurt let let let put put put set set set shut shut shut spread spread spread upset upset upset Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 20
11. Verbs and tenses, Suite Infinitive Past tense Past participle bl ow bl ew /u/ bl own gr ow gr ew /u/ gr own thr ow thr ew /u/ thr own kn ow kn ew /u/ kn own fly fl ew /u/ fl own draw dr ew /u/ dr awn withdraw withdr ew /u/ withdr awn break br oke br oken choose ch ose ch osen freeze fr oze fr ozen speak sp oke sp oken forget forg ot forg ott en steal st ole st olen weave wove woven bring br ought / ot / br ought / ot / buy bought / ot / bought / ot / fight fought / ot / fought / ot / seek sought / ot / sought / ot / think th ought / ot / th ought / ot / catch caught / ot / caught / ot / teach taught / ot / taught / ot / deal /i:/ deal t /e/ deal t /e/ mean /i:/ mean t /e/ mean t /e/ burn burn t burn t learn learn t learn t cl ing cl ung cl ung dig dug dug fl ing fl ung fl ung shr ink shr ank/shrunk shr unk sp in sp un sp un sw ing sw ung sw ung st ick st uck st uck st ing st ung st ung str ike str uck str uck hang hung hung eat ate eat en give gave giv en forgive forg ave forgiv en forb id forb ade forbidd en hide /ai/ hid /i/ hidden /i/ bite /ai/ bit /i/ bitten /i/ beat /i:/ beat /i:/ bea ten /i:/ fall fell fall en Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 21
12. Verbs and tenses, Suite Infinitive Past tense Past participle feed /i:/ fed /e/ fed /e/ lead /i:/ led /e/ led /e/ meet /i:/ met /e/ met /e/ read /i:/ rea d /e/ rea d /e/ shoot sh ot sh ot hear hear d hear d flee fle d fle d find found found wind /ai/ wound wound st an d st oo d st oo d underst an d underst oo d underst oo d lay /ai/ laid /e/ laid /e/ say /ai/ said /e/ said /e/ pay /ai/ paid /e/ paid /e/ cr ee p cr ept cr ept fee l felt felt kee p kept kept kn ee l kn elt kn elt sl ee p sl ept sl ept sw ee p sw ept sw ept wee p wept wept sh ow show ed show n sow sow ed sow n mow mow ed mow n get got got sh ine sh one sh one win won won sit sat sat hold held held sell sold sold tell told told have had had make made made leave left left slide /ai/ slid /i/ slid /i/ be was/were been go went gone lie lay lain see saw seen Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 22
13. Verbs and tenses, Suite Future perfect, The future perfect refers to a completed action in the future . It is used: function • to express an action that will have happened before a specific time in the future I'll have been here for six months on June 23 rd . • with a time expression using by + a point in future time . You will have finished your work by next week. Tip Always check the sequence of tenses when you have two verbs in the same sentence. Sequence of Conjunctions of time are not usually followed by will or would ; we use a tenses with time present (simple, continuous or perfect) or past tense instead. conjunctions as as long as as soon as before the moment by the time now that once since so long as until when whenever while Example : • They haven’t decided what they will do when their contracts expire. • By the time we got to the headquarters, the meeting had already started. Sequence of If clause Main clause tenses in present tense present tense/imperative conditional If water freezes , it becomes solid. sentences If you feel sick, just leave . present tense future tense If you are from another country, you will probably have to pay income tax. past tense* conditional tense If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world. past perfect tense conditional perfect tense If I had known the truth, I would have trusted him. * When the verb to be is used, the form were is used for all persons. If I were you, I wouldn't follow his advice. Conditional Other conjunctions can introduce conditional clauses like: conjunctions even if even though provided (that) as long as unless You could stay longer provided he paid rent. Unless you receive a fax by Tuesday, carry on with your transaction Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 23
14. Verbs and tenses, Suite Tip Check that the last word in the passive construction is a past participle. Passive tenses The passive of an active tense is formed as follows : to be + past participle (of active verb) To be is in the same tense as the active verb. The trainee broke the new photocopier → The new photocopier was broken by the trainee . agent Tense Active Passive present simple breaks is broken present continuous is breaking is being broken past simple broke was broken past continuous was breaking was being broken present perfect has broken has been broken past perfect had broken had been broken future will break will be broken future perfect will have broken will have been broken conditional would break would be broken perfect conditional would have broken would have been broken modals can break can be broken Tip If you see the agent by + noun (except time expressions), check that the verb is in the passive. The gerund The gerund is formed as follows: verb (base form) + ing and can be • subject Complaining is a national pastime. • subject complement What I prefer is negotiating on my own terms. • direct object They should quit complaining. • object of a preposition He’s good at managing sales teams. Verbs + gerund admit deny consider (as direct object) contemplate imagine finish mind resent dislike appreciate enjoy mention postpone discuss suggest avoid risk involve keep miss practice can't stand can't help Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 24
15. Verbs and tenses, Suite Verbs + accuse sb of adjust to agree with preposition + apologize (to sb ) for approve of disapprove of gerund argue about believe in blame sb for comment on complain about concentrate on congratulate sb on consist in deal with decide against depend on devote oneself to feel like forget about forgive sb for insist on look forward to object to pay sb for plan on prevent sb from stop sb from see about suspect sb of talk about thank sb for think about/of worry about Verb + The following (state) verbs : adjective + be seem, look, sound, feel (verbs of senses) preposition + become get appear prove gerund can only be followed by adjectives or adjective + preposition combinations : accustomed to afraid of angry at ashamed of capable of incapable of concerned about content with delighted at excited about famous for good at grateful to sb for interested in lazy about proud of responsible for sorry about sure of/about surprised at tired of worried about Possessive In formal English possessive adjectives and genitives can be used with the - adjective/noun ing form as follows: verb + possessive adjective/genitive + -ing form + gerund Do you mind my smoking? (Informal: Do you mind me smoking?) I don't approve of Mike's driving. (I don't approve of Mike driving.) Special It’s no use It’s (not) worth There’s no point (in) expressions + To have fun To have a good/hard time gerund To spend time/money To waste time/money To have difficulty/trouble/a problem To go hiking/jogging (sports) To go shopping/sightseeing (recreational activities) They had a hard time negotiating a settlement. Ce sujet continue page suivante 15/09/2006 v 1.00 25